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Examining the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth

  • Niels Hermensane,2,
  • Kirsten Verkooijenane &
  • Maria Koelen1

BMC Public Wellness volume 18, Commodity number:1012 (2018) Cite this article

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Abstract

Background

Enquiry has shown that sports participation is positively related to youth developmental outcomes, only it is nonetheless unknown if sports participation relates to these outcomes amid socially vulnerable youth. Hence, this research aimed to examine the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes (i.e., problem behaviour, pro-social behaviour, schoolhouse functioning, subjective health, well-being, cocky-regulation skills, and sense of coherence) for socially vulnerable youth. In addition, the stability of the relationship between sports participation and the youth developmental outcomes were investigated with a six-calendar month interval.

Methods

Two identical questionnaires were administered with a six-calendar month interval by youth professionals from 4 youth organisations, measuring the youth developmental outcomes and sports participation rates of socially vulnerable youth. In total, 283 socially vulnerable youths (average xiv.68 years old) participated at baseline and 187 youths after six months.

Results

The results showed that sports participation was positively related to pro-social behaviour, subjective health, well-existence, and sense of coherence at both measurements. We found no evidence for the relationship between sports participation and problem behaviour and the cocky-regulatory skills. In improver, sports participation was only positively related to school performance at the outset, only not at the second, measurement.

Conclusions

The results of this report prove that there are positive relationships between sports participation and several youth developmental outcomes. Based on the current information no conclusions can be fatigued about the causal relationship betwixt sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. Given the focus of policymakers and health professionals on sport as a means to attain wider social and educational outcomes for young people, including in holland, further research is needed to shed light on the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth, with a special focus on this grouping's heterogeneity.

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Trialregister.nl NTR4621 Date of Registration: ii June 2014 (retrospectively registered).

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Background

Researchers and policymakers accept often advocated that sports participation tin exist beneficial for the personal development of young people [ane, ii] as studies have institute evidence that sports participation can benefit not simply physical health, just also mental, cognitive and social health (see for reviews [iii, 4]). The Human Capital Model developed by Bailey [iii], for example, gives a comprehensive overview of six different forms of capital that showed to have a positive relationship with sports participation: concrete majuscule, emotional capital, individual capital, social capital letter, intellectual capital and financial capital. Underlying the Homo Capital Model is the assumption that competencies, skills and knowledge tin can exist acquired past participating in sport resulting in positive youth development. The evidence base for the different forms of capital letter gains from sports participation is diverse, with strong prove supporting physical uppercase gains merely with weaker evidence for private capital letter gains or financial capital gains. Nonetheless, the sports setting is oftentimes considered an artery for positive youth development [1].

Organising inclusive sports activities is considered to be especially relevant for socially vulnerable youth who are characterised by an accumulation of negative experiences with the institutions in their lives [5]. The negative experiences with institutions tin can relate to the family domain (e.one thousand., the parents have financial problems or youths experience domestic violence), to the school domain (e.g., youths are bullied at school), to the judicial system (due east.g., after drug apply or later a crime) or to the customs (eastward.g., living in a bad neighbourhood with high criminal offence rates). These negative experiences lead to distorted and asunder relationships with those institutions [five] and equally a result socially vulnerable youth are often confronted with feelings of incompetence, rejection, isolation and a low self-esteem. Considering that socially vulnerable youth participate less often in sport than their non-vulnerable peers [6], in that location is great potential to engage these young people in a pedagogical and supportive setting. However, the relationship between sports participation and developmental outcomes amid socially vulnerable youth is hardly investigated.

The nowadays study

A large body of evidence is available that suggests that sports participation is positively associated with more healthy behaviours [7, 8], improved school functioning [9, 10], improved subjective health [three, 11], and increased well-being [12, 13] in immature people. Nevertheless, this inquiry has paid piddling attention to investigating this relationship amidst socially vulnerable youth groups. Recent reviews examining the furnishings of sports programs on the personal development of socially vulnerable youth as well concluded that very little research has been conducted among this specific youth group [14, 15] and that the effects of sports participation on youth development were inconsistent. Indeed, X Broeke demonstrated that knowledge in developmental psychology is largely based on inquiry that has been conducted in Western, Caucasian, and centre-class research populations [16]. Withal, Henrich et al. [17] argue that the results from studies among these WEIRD populations – White, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, and Autonomous – are the least representative to generalise to other populations. Because there is still limited and inconsistent evidence regarding the relationship between sports participation and youth development amongst socially vulnerable youth, there is a need for further research. Hence, this first aim of this study is to investigate, among socially vulnerable youth, the relation between sports participation and indicators of youth development, as measured in: (a) behaviour, (b) school performance, (c) subjective health, and (d) well-being.

The 2nd aim of this written report is to investigate, among socially vulnerable youth, the relation between sports participation and two proximal outcomes: self-regulation skills and sense of coherence. The outset proximal outcome, self-regulations skills, refers to a specific set of assets that may be relevant for the longer-term developments in the distal outcomes behaviour, school-operation, subjective health, and well-being. These self-regulations skills are: planning, self-evaluation, monitoring, attempt, reflection, and self-efficacy [18]. Self-regulation is considered to have an influence on a person's success [19] in the broadest sense of the word and in various societal domains [20,21,22]. Self-regulatory skills accept previously been found to correlate positively with young people'due south sports participation [22,23,24,25]. A study by Jonker et al. [23] demonstrated that pre-university students (12–xvi years) participating in sport scored higher on planning, reflection, and effort than their pre-university peers that did not participate in sport. Posner and Rothbart [26] land that the evolution of cocky-regulation in children is influenced by both genes and the surroundings in which children live. Specific exercises during childhood, especially attending training, can better self-regulation skills. In this respect, it has been claimed that youths that participate in sport have increased opportunities to train and develop self-regulation skills [25]. In addition, information technology has been pointed out that people develop self-regulatory skills best in inspiring environments that are rich in feedback and that crave goal-setting [22], characteristics that are frequently present in the sports setting. According to Piché et al. [24], there exists a mutual relation between sports participation and cocky-regulation. The authors found that kindergarten childhood participation in concrete activity predicted self-regulation skills in the fourth course. Moreover, they institute that kindergarten childhood self-regulation skills predicted participation in concrete activity in the fourth grade. Current studies on the relationship between sports participation and self-regulation focussed only to a limited extent on vulnerable youth groups.

The second proximal outcome, sense of coherence, explains people's chapters to cope with stressful life challenges in a wellness-promoting fashion [27, 28]. Sense of coherence has a vital role in orienting a person towards agreement a specific stressor (i.eastward., comprehensibility), in evaluating the resources that might be available to deal with everyday life stressors (i.eastward., manageability), and in engaging with challenges as a meaningful procedure (i.due east., meaningfulness). Individuals with a relatively stiff sense of coherence are better able to comprehend the stressors that they encounter in everyday life and take a general confidence that resources are available to encounter the demands posed by stressful situations [27]. Furthermore, they consider stressors more equally a meaningful challenge than every bit a threat and, hence, they are amend able to select effective coping mechanisms, resolving tension in a health-promoting manner. Previous studies accept institute a positive human relationship between sports participation and sense of coherence [29,30,31]. Notwithstanding, to the best of the authors' knowledge, this relationship has not been studied in vulnerable youth groups.

The third aim of this report is investigate the stability of the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. Research has shown that socially vulnerable youth face a turbulent life characterised by challenges and stressors on a daily basis [5] which can influence their power to participate in sport at a given moment [6]. In addition, how they report on developmental outcomes (e.g., subjective health or well-being) may fluctuate depending on the amount of stressors they are experiencing at a specific moment. To empathize meliorate how sports participation is related to youth developmental outcomes, the stability of this relationship should be accounted for. It is for this reason that information were collected among socially vulnerable youth by administering two identical questionnaires with a six-month interval.

Summarising, the post-obit 3 study aims were formulated:

  1. 1.

    To investigate, among socially vulnerable youth, the relation between sports participation and indicators of youth development, every bit measured in: (a) behaviour, (b) school performance, (c) subjective health, and (d) well-being.

  2. two.

    To investigate, amid socially vulnerable youth, the relation between sports participation and self-regulation skills (i.e., planning, monitoring, effort, and reflection) and sense of coherence.

  3. 3.

    To investigate the stability of the human relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes.

Methods

This study is part of the research project Youth, Care and Sport, prepare to study the value of sport for socially vulnerable youth (encounter for a detailed description [32]). Cross-exclusive data were collected with two identical questionnaires administered with a half dozen-calendar month interval among socially vulnerable youth.

Study population

Data were collected via four youth organisations that work with socially vulnerable youth (between 12 and 23 years quondam). The participating youth organisations provide services to youths who are (temporarily) experiencing problems in their personal development, for example because they have learning or behavioural bug or considering they live in settings that hinder this development (eastward.grand., parents incapable of providing proper care). The services provided past these organisations include school social work and educational counselling services as well as more specialised (mental) healthcare. The youth organisations are funded past a complex mix of government subsidies and individual funding. The participating youth organisations were a youth care system in a large Dutch metropolis and 3 schools for special pedagogy of which two were located in a large Dutch city and one in a rural area.

The youth professionals employed at the participating organisations asked the youths, which were clients of the youth organisations, to participate in the study. This procedure resulted in a non-randomised, purposive sample of participants. At Time 1 (T1), data were collected on 283 youths. Nine youths completed less than one-half of the baseline questionnaire and were removed from the sample, leading to a sample size of 274 participants (209 boys and 65 girls). The average age of the youths was fourteen.68 (SD = ane.69). At the six-month follow-up (Ttwo), 194 participants completed the questionnaire. After removing seven youths from the sample because they completed less than half of the questionnaire, the remaining 187 participants were used in the analyses (follow-up rate: 68.two%). The main reason for dropout was that the youths had left the youth organisation, for case because their treatment plan was finalised or because they dropped-out of school. The youths that dropped out at Tii were significantly older at T1 (M = fifteen.29, SD = ane.97) than the youths that completed the questionnaire at T2 (1000 = fourteen.41, SD = ane.47), t(267) = 4.062, p < .001. No other significant differences were establish between the youths that did or did not complete the second questionnaire.

Data collection

Information were collected via paper questionnaires that independent questions adapted to the language and cognitive skills of the report population. A pilot test was conducted within one unit of measurement of a youth organisation to run across whether the questionnaire was understandable for the youths. The five participating youths indicated that the included questions were clear and comprehensible. However, to reduce the burden for the participants, the Motivational Climate Calibration for Youth Sports [33] was removed from the questionnaire. On average, the youths needed between 15 and 20 min to fill in the questionnaire.

Due to the vulnerable nature of the study population, special attention was paid to obtaining informed consent. An data letter of the alphabet that contained detailed information about the aim and the set-up of the study was sent to the parents. The letter of the alphabet included information about the confidential employ of the data for this research and guaranteed parents that the data would non be distributed to third parties, would not be discussed with the youth professionals, and would be solely used for the inquiry project Youth, Intendance and Sport. Parents were asked to contact the youth professional if they objected to their child's participation in the study (i.e., passive informed consent). The youth professionals involved in the data collection were instructed past the researchers about the data collection process. These instructions also included the upstanding aspects of administering the questionnaires and the rights of the youths that participated in the study. Consequently, the youth professionals that administered the questionnaires made sure that the youths knew that participation was on a voluntary basis and that they had the right to finish participating at any time without whatsoever repercussions. Youths that agreed to take office in the research project (i.eastward., oral informed consent) received a questionnaire from the youth professional. During the information drove, a youth professional person was present to answer any of the youths' questions regarding the items in the questionnaire. The questionnaires were administered in various settings, but mostly in a classroom setting or at the youth'south home. After completion of the 2d questionnaire (T2), the youths received a gift voucher for their participation. This projection was performed in accordance with the code of carry for minors [34] and with general ethical guidelines for behavioural and social research in the netherlands, peer-reviewed, and approved by the review board of the Wageningen School of Social Sciences.

Measures

Demographic data were gathered regarding the participant'southward historic period, sex, and the youth system responsible for collecting the data (T1). The following measures were included in the two questionnaires:

Distal youth developmental outcomes

Four distal youth developmental outcomes were included in the questionnaire: (a) behaviour, (b) school performance, (c) subjective health, and (d) well-being. In order to appraise behaviour, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was administered [35]. This instrument has often been used as a screening tool for behavioural disorders [36, 37], and the psychometric backdrop have previously been found satisfactory in a Dutch sample of non-vulnerable children and adolescents [38]. The SDQ contains five sub-scales of five items each: hyperactivity (example particular: "I am restless, I cannot stay still for long"), emotional symptoms (instance item: "I worry a lot"), deport problems (case item: "I often have atmosphere tantrums or hot tempers"), peer issues (example item: "I have one good friend or more"), and pro-social behaviour (instance item: "I am helpful if someone is hurt, upset, or feeling ill"). The items could be scored on a three-bespeak scale: 'not true', 'somewhat truthful', and 'certainly true'. Following Goodman'southward [35] procedures, a total SDQ score was calculated by using the subscales hyperactivity, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, and peer issues (Tone α = .73; T2 α = .72). College total SDQ scores reverberate a higher rate of behavioural disorder. The fifth subscale, pro-social behaviour, was computed past taking the average of the five pro-social items, and higher scores reflect more pro-social behaviour. The internal consistency of the pro-social behaviour calibration was marginal (T1 α = .61; Ttwo α = .67). As a cocky-developed indicator of school performance, youths were asked to report how their teacher was likely to evaluate their work. The five-point scale ranged from 'bad' to 'splendid'. The youths' subjective health was assessed using a question from the Brusk Form Wellness Survey (SF-36) [39]. Both at T1 and T2, youths answered the post-obit question "In full general, how good is your health?" on a 5-point scale ranging from 'bad' to 'excellent'. Finally, the youths were asked to answer the following question "How are you currently feeling?" on a five-point scale ranging from 'bad' to 'excellent', as an indicator of well-existence.

Proximal youth developmental outcomes

Ii proximal youth developmental outcomes were included in the questionnaire: (a) self-regulation skills, and (b) sense of coherence. The self-regulation skills were assessed using the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale [18]. The original scale consisted of six subscales, just, to reduce the burden for the participants, 4 subscales were selected for this report. The selection was based on previous research that indicated that participation in sport was most strongly related to these iv scales [22] and on the relevance of these scales for the purpose of this study. All the items could be scored on a four-indicate scale ranging from 'almost never' to 'about always'. Example items were: "I determine how to solve a problem before I begin" (planning), "I check how well I am doing when I solve a task" (monitoring), "I concentrate fully when I do a task" (effort), and "I endeavour to think about my strengths and weaknesses" (reflection). Scores on the subscale items were averaged, with college values representing stronger cocky-regulatory skills. The internal consistency of the scales was satisfactory: planning (eight items, T1 α = .85; T2 α = 87), monitoring (six items, Ti α = .78; Ttwo α = .82), try (nine items, Tone α = .83: T1 α = .83), and reflection (five items, T1 α = .80; Ttwo α = .88). Sense of coherence was measured using the Dutch translation of the Orientation to Life Questionnaire (SOC-13) adapted to immature people [xl]. The thirteen items of this scale could be scored on a five-point calibration from 'nigh never' to 'almost ever', with the exception of two items that were positively formulated and could exist scored from 'very bad' to 'very skilful' (T1 α = .83; T2 α = .84). Example items are: "How frequently has it happened that people who y'all counted on disappointed you?" and "How often exercise you have feelings that yous're non certain you can proceed under control?" A sum score was calculated for the 13 items, with higher scores reflecting a stronger sense of coherence.

Sports participation

Measurements regarding the youths' sports participation were based on the Dutch Guideline for Sport Participation Research (Richtlijn Sportdeelname Onderzoek (RSO)), with recall periods adjusted to fit the timeframe of this research [41]. The questions were preceded by a curt explanation of the definition of sports participation, to brand certain that all participants understood what sports participation entailed: "Examples of sport are football game, badminton, fitness, and bike tours, but non doing puzzles, walking a domestic dog, or cycling to school. Physical activity during schoolhouse times (physical education or playing outside) is not included". The items included in the questionnaire addressed the (a) frequency of sports participation in the previous month, (b) frequency of sports participation on average per week (c) boilerplate duration of sports action, (d) the type of sports played, and (eastward) membership of a sports or fitness social club. The variable frequency of sports participation in the previous calendar month was an open-concluded question. Strong doubts were raised by the youth professionals about the reliability of the variable frequency of sports participation in the previous calendar month every bit the youths were ofttimes unable to correctly answer this question. This observation led to the decision to drop this variable from the analysis. The variable frequency of sports participation on boilerplate per week had five respond categories: 'in one case a week', '2 times a week', '3 times a week', 'four times a calendar week', and 'v or more times a calendar week'. The variable average elapsing of sports activity had five reply categories: 'less than one-half an hr', 'betwixt an half and 1 hour', 'between i and 2 hours', 'between 2 and 3 hours', and 'longer than 3 hours'.

Data analysis

All statistical analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS version 23. The internal consistency of the variables was obtained using Cronbach's blastoff. Mean and standard deviations were inspected, too as the distribution properties of the variables. The following continues variables were not approximately normally distributed: total SDQ score, pro-social behaviour, effort, and reflection. The data for total SDQ score, pro-social behaviour, and effort were transformed using the square root function, later on which the variables were approximately normally distributed. The reflection scale remained not normally distributed and was dropped from the assay since no reliable outcomes would be obtained from a statistical test. To come across whether there were differences between the youths beyond the four youth organisations, the T1 variables were compared across the participating youth organisations using ANOVA for the commonly distributed variables and using Kruskal-Wallis for the ordinal variables school operation, subjective health and well-being. A paired-samples t-exam was conducted to run across if the boilerplate scores differed betwixt T1 and T2 for the continues variables and the Wilcoxon signed-rank examination for the ordinal variables.

To examine the relationship between sports participation and the total SDQ score and pro-social behaviour, the cocky-regulation skills, planning, monitoring and attempt, and sense of coherence, we used a repeated measures analysis of variance, where the participants' historic period and sex activity were included as covariates (ANCOVA). The betwixt-subjects gene (i.e., Group factor) in the analysis was based on the variable frequency of sports participation on average per week at Ttwo . In gild to take relatively equal group sizes, participants were divided in iii groups of sports participation: no-sport group, moderate-sport grouping (one or 2 times a calendar week), high-sport group (iii or more times a week). For all variables, all assumptions for conducting repeated measures ANCOVA were met: no outliers were detected, in that location was homogeneity of variance (as assessed past Levene'due south test), and homogeneity of covariances (as assessed by Box'southward exam). Eta squared is reported for all the continues variables as a measure of effect size.

For the ordinal variables, school performance, subjective health, and well-being, a Mantel-Haenszel test of trend was run to decide whether a linear association existed between the variables and the frequency of sports participation (i.e., the three groups of sports participation). The three groups of sports participation at T1 served as the between-subjects factor in the assay for the T1 variables and the three groups of sports participation at T2 served as the between-subjects factor for the T2 variables. Post-obit the assay of main group differences, for the ordinal variables school performance, subjective wellness, and well-being, we calculated a modify score indicating a negative development (− ane), no change (0), or a positive development (1). We used the Mantel-Haenszel test of trend to encounter whether the modify scores differed across the three groups of sports participation at Ttwo.

Results

Table 1 shows the participants' characteristics at Tone and T2. Seventy pct of the youths participated in a sport in the previous month at Ti and at T2. At Tone, the about popular sports were soccer, fitness, swimming, and boxing. Of the 187 youths that completed both questionnaires, 37 youths did not participate in a sport (19.9%), xv youths started to participate in a sport (8.1%), xx youths stopped participating in a sport (ten.viii%) and 114 youths connected participating in a sport (61.3%). 60-seven percent of the youths remained in the same sports-group (i.e., no-sport, moderate-sport, and high-sport) between T1 and T2. Of the youths that participated in a sport at T2, 42.7% played a sport nether supervision of a sports charabanc or a sports leader. No meaning differences were found for the Ti variables between the 4 youth organisations. In improver, the paired-samples t-test showed that the average scores on the upshot variables did not differ between T1 and T2 (p > .29).

Table 1 Characteristics of participants at Time one and Fourth dimension 2 (N = 187) and p-values for the issue variables

Total size table

The repeated measures ANCOVAs yielded a significant main group effect for pro-social behaviour and sense of coherence (see Table 2). A similar trend was observed for the total SDQ score. Post-hoc assay with Bonferroni correction revealed that, for pro-social behaviour, the high-sport group scored significantly college than the no-sport grouping (p = .004). For sense of coherence, the moderate-sport group scored significantly higher than the no-sport grouping (p = .001). No significant difference was found for sense of coherence with the high-sport grouping (p = .139). The repeated measures ANCOVA yielded non-significant master furnishings for Fourth dimension (p > .170) and a non-significant Group x Fourth dimension interaction effect (p > .198) for all the variables. At that place was a principal effect of sexual practice for pro-social behaviour, F(ane, 175) = 4.713, p = .031, ɳ2 = .026, and effort, F = (1, 129) = 4.490, p = .036, ɳ2 = .034, where girls scored higher than boys on both pro-social behaviour and effort. In addition, there was a primary effect of age for planning, F (1, 128) = 6.036, p = .015, ɳ2 = .045, and monitoring F (i, 127) = 7.522, p = .007, ɳ2 = .056, where older youths scored college on both self-regulatory skills.

Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and main effects for group on the outcome measures (Due north = 180)

Total size table

For the ordinal variables (i.e., school performance, subjective health, and well-being) at T1, the Mantel-Haenszel test of trend showed a statistically significant linear association betwixt the groups of sports participation and school performance χtwo(1) = 9.054, p = .003, r = .22, subjective health χtwo(1) = 12.988, p < .001, r = .27 and, well-beingness χii(i) = 12.340, p < .001, r = .26. College frequency of sports participation was associated with higher scores on school performance, subjective health, and well-beingness. At T2, the Mantel-Haenszel test of trend showed a statistically significant linear association between the groups of sports participation and subjective health χtwo(i) = 15.649, p < .001, r = .29 and well-being χtwo(1) = vi.145, p = .013, r = .18, but not with schoolhouse performance χtwo(1) = 0.365, p = .546, r = .04. Higher frequency of sports participation was associated with higher scores on subjective health and well-being.

The Mantel-Haenszel test of trend showed a statistically significant linear association between the groups of sports participation at Ttwo and the alter score of school performance χ2(1) = 5.316, p = .021, r = .17. There were no pregnant associations betwixt the groups of sports participation at T2 and the change scores of subjective wellness and well-being.

Give-and-take

The aim of this article was to examine the relationship between sports participation and youth development outcomes in a Dutch socially vulnerable youth grouping. Moreover, we examined the stability of this human relationship within a 6-month interval. We found that seventy% of the socially vulnerable youth participated in sport at least once a calendar week in the month prior to the questionnaire, at both measurements. In add-on, nearly two thirds of the youths kept on playing a sport in the 6 months betwixt the two questionnaires. We constitute a positive relationship between sports participation and pro-social behaviour, subjective health, well-being, and sense of coherence. These findings proved to exist stable across the two measurements. We found no evidence for the relationship betwixt sports participation and total SDQ score (i.e., problem behaviour) and the self-regulatory skills. In addition, sports participation was merely positively related to school performance at the outset, only not at the second, measurement.

Contrary to our expectations [24], we constitute no prove for the positive relationship betwixt sports participation and the cocky-regulatory skills planning, monitoring and effort. An explanation for the absence of a positive relationship between sports participation and the self-regulatory skills can be grounded in the discussion whether self-regulatory skills are domain-general skills or domain-specific skills. Several authors have suggested that cocky-regulatory skills are domain-general skills that are relevant for several performance domains [22]. In other words, self-regulatory skills such equally planning and effort tin can be used in various life domains interchangeably, such equally in the sports setting or in the school setting. However, other researchers have institute contradicting results suggesting that metacognitive skills, such as the cocky-regulatory skills, are domain-specific [42]. This means that young people may report high scores on the cocky-regulatory skills planning and endeavour inside the sports setting, merely at the same time study depression scores on these skills in other life domains. The Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Written report Scale, included in this study, measured domain-general skills. As the questionnaires were mostly administered in classroom settings, it is possible that youths reflected on their skills in relation to their school performance. This may explain why we did not find a relationship with sports participation. More research is needed to understand the human relationship between sports participation and self-regulatory skills among socially vulnerable youth.

In this current study we found that sports participation was positively related to sense of coherence. Sense of coherence reflects a person's power to cope with stressful events in a health-promoting way [27, 28]. As socially vulnerable youth are confronted with stressors on a daily ground, a stronger sense of coherence may be an of import factor in determining the youths ability to bargain with these stressors and, subsequently, increasing the chance that they are able to participate in sport. The other fashion around, the sports setting may be a setting in which socially vulnerable youth accept life experiences that are known to be conducive to the strengthening of sense of coherence: consistency, load-balance, and socially-valued determination making. García-Moya et al. [43] examined the contextual factors contributing to the development of sense of coherence in children anile 13 to 18 years. The well-nigh of import predictor of sense of coherence was the quality of parent–child relationships, but other contexts (i.eastward., the school, the neighbourhood, and peer relations) also remained important in predicting sense of coherence. Consequently, the authors [43] ended that "contextual factors seemed to predominantly act in an additive fashion" (p. 919) suggesting that the sports setting could aid in strengthening the sense of coherence next to other important life domains. Further research on the development of sense of coherence, specifically within the sports setting, may be especially interesting considering sense of coherence reflects a life orientation that can be used throughout the life-grade, in different settings and situations [28, 44]. People with a strong sense of coherence are better able to use the resources they accept bachelor to bargain with everyday life challenges. Therefore, the influence of the availability of assets (e.g., self-regulation skills) on individuals' healthy development may depend on the level of sense of coherence. It would, therefore, be interesting to investigate whether young people with a relatively strong sense of coherence are ameliorate able than young people with a relatively weak sense of coherence to transfer life skills from the sports setting to other life domains.

The findings in this written report partially corroborate existing evidence on the positive relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes (see for an overview for example: [3, iv, 45]). Information technology is important to note that enquiry has pointed out that reciprocal relationships exist between sports participation and the outcomes that were measured in this study. For example, it has been demonstrated that behavioural issues tin be a barrier to sports participation [46, 47], suggesting that behavioural issues predict sports participation rates, as well as the other way around. Similarly, in a big German accomplice study, Manz et al. [46] found that having psychopathological problems (measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) was a predictor of abstaining from organised sports participation. It was also found that having emotional symptoms correlated with lower levels of physical activity in a cohort report with 10-twelvemonth-former children [47]. These findings back up the idea that youths' developmental status may also determine the chance that they participate in sport. Information technology is within this context, that researchers call for inclusive sports activities as a first step in reaching positive youth development, recognising that the youths' developmental status is also influential in the youths' potential to participate in sport [48].

Sports participation is not a unified concept as it tin can accept many shapes and forms. Coalter [49] makes a distinction between sport activities, sport-plus activities, and plus-sport activities. Sport activities include both recreational and competitive sport, where the focus lies on playing a sport in the hope that this will lead to changes in youth developmental outcomes [49, 50]. Sport-plus activities also focus on sport, but within these activities sport is seen equally an important setting for positively influencing youth developmental outcomes. Additional non-sport components are added to the activities that aim to facilitate this change procedure. For instance, each training tin can exist organised effectually a specific life skill in which sure exercises are included to railroad train the item life skill. Finally, plus-sport activities focus mainly on youth evolution and use sport equally a vehicle to attract young people and to positively influence youth developmental outcomes. Sport in these plus-sport activities is oft broadly defined (e.g., game playing). For youths who are more 'at gamble', it has been suggested that sports activities should shift more towards plus-sport activities in guild to achieve positive outcomes [l]. The current study focused on the Dutch sports sector, which is organised around national sports federations with members going to local sports clubs. These sports clubs are frequently run by volunteer sports coaches who receive merely express or no formal coaching training and, hence, there is very lilliputian or no attention of the pedagogical aspects of the sports setting [51]. Acknowledging that intentionally structuring and designing the sports setting to reach positive youth evolution is important [52], it is not surprising that nosotros did non observe a change in the different youth development outcomes (except for school performance) across time.

Research has suggested that for the positive development of socially vulnerable youth it is possibly non the frequency or duration of their sports participation that is of importance, but rather the exposure to a supportive, motivational and pedagogical climate [53, 54]. A mastery motivational climate, which focuses on personal endeavour, comeback and mastery, has been positively linked to enjoyment [55] and the motivation to proceed participating in sport. [56]. Studies have as well supported the ascertainment that the motivational climate is an important predictor of the reported youth developmental outcomes [57,58,59]. Even more then, a negative or unbalanced sports climate could harm individual players and potentially push youths further down the screw of vulnerability [60, 61]. To fully understand the relationship between sports participation and youth evolution, assessing the quality of the sports climate, and thus the quality of the developmental experiences for youths [62], is necessary.

Strengths and limitations

This study is, to the best of the authors' knowledge, unique in investigating the association betwixt sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth. First of all, 283 young people participated in the starting time circular of the questionnaire thanks to a strong network of youth organisations involved in the project Youth, Intendance and Sport. This made it possible to assess the association between sports participation and various indicators of youth development for a big group of vulnerable young people. Secondly, this is the start study to assess the outcomes at two time points, allowing united states to examine the stability of the clan between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. And finally, whereas previous studies have oftentimes focused on specific sports-based interventions or programs, this study has focused on the traditional sports sector that is dominant in many Western European countries. In this respect, this report has contributed to a number of insights into this rapidly developing area of research.

A contempo review of the social and emotional well-being of at-risk youth participating in concrete activity programs showed that the risk of bias was high in all the included studies, for example because very few studies included a control group or event sizes [xv]. This current study was unable to overcome these biases. The original study, as described in the study protocol [32], had a non-equivalent control grouping design with an intervention implemented in the experimental condition that aimed to increase the sports participation of socially vulnerable youth. Nevertheless, due to the changing context in which our inquiry project was conducted, it was no longer possible to implement the intervention. The most of import alter concerned a political transition in the system of the Dutch youth care system during which the responsibleness of organising youth intendance shifted from the youth care organisation with whom we worked to the local government. This transition did not only filibuster the offset of the information collection, but also required the researchers to seek collaboration with a new party (i.e., the local government) that was now responsible for deciding on the content of the youth professionals' piece of work. This ultimately led to the abolishment of the intervention and the continued not-equivalent control group pattern. The researchers also encountered several challenges such every bit edifice trust with the youth professionals, obtaining parental consent, and compunction rates. The challenges that researchers experience when conducting research in vulnerable groups frequently disrupt inquiry or foreclose it from being conducted [63]. We have tried to deal with these challenges throughout the projection in the best possible way in an attempt to gain valuable data of an nether-researched population. Notwithstanding, a number of limitations have to be borne in mind concerning the results presented in this paper.

First of all, due to changes in the original written report design, this current written report did not take an intervention group and a control grouping. The absenteeism of a (quasi-)experimental pattern prevents us from drawing conclusions about causal relationships. Following Webb's [64] recommendations for further research in the positive youth evolution expanse, longitudinal and prospective designs are needed to assess developmental changes through sports participation and "to analytically separate them from the influences of other social and structural factors on youth development" (p. 178).

Secondly, we divided participants into three groups based on the average number of times per calendar week they participated in sport. Future research may benefit from a more accurate and precise measurement of sports participation, past too including the intensity of the sports action. Furthermore, the sample size of this written report did not allow us to investigate whether youths that started or stopped participating in sport differed on developmental outcomes from youths that kept on participating or did not participate in sport between the two questionnaires. Future research could investigate how youth developmental outcomes may differ beyond sports participation patterns, using longitudinal designs.

A third limitation that needs to be considered is the heterogeneity of the sample. All the participants faced, temporarily or over a longer menstruum of time, issues in growing up. However, the degree to which the participants were socially vulnerable might have differed to a large extent. The youth organisations involved in this study offering services to youths with a wide range of bug such as being bullied in schoolhouse, having autism or ADHD, having parents with drug or alcohol problems, and and then forth. For ethical reasons, we were unable to collect any data about the problems that the youths were facing. Even so, the extent to which people experience beingness socially vulnerable is very relevant for how they experience their participation in sport [65]. More detailed information virtually the youths' issues would have allowed u.s. to investigate whether sports participation could have different outcomes for different groups of vulnerable youths. The lack of these insights makes it unrealistic to brand generalisations about the positive associations between sports participation and the youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth. Moreover, a large proportion of this study'south participants were boys. Although boys are over-represented in the Dutch youth care system [66] – in 2015, 58.5% of all youths receiving youth intendance were boys – this does limit our power to generalise the findings of the electric current written report to all socially vulnerable youth and to socially vulnerable girls specifically.

This report did not have into account other extracurricular activities in which the youths may have been involved in improver or alternatively to their participation in sport. A study by Larson et al. [67] demonstrated that different organised activities take a very distinct profile of developmental experiences. Community-oriented activities, for example, scored high on developmental experiences related to adult networks and social upper-case letter. Similarly, performance and fine arts activities scored high on developmental experiences related to initiative. Futurity research could include a broad set up of extracurricular activities to encounter how sports participation and other extracurricular activities relate to a salubrious evolution amid socially vulnerable youth.

Conclusion

This study investigated the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes in a Dutch socially vulnerable youth population and examined the stability of this human relationship with a 6-month interval. Nosotros found a positive relationship between sports participation and pro-social behaviour, subjective wellness, well-beingness, and sense of coherence. These findings were stable across the two measurements. Nosotros institute no evidence for the relationship betwixt sports participation and total SDQ score (i.east., problem behaviour) and self-regulatory skills. In addition, sports participation was only positively related to schoolhouse performance at the outset, but not at the 2d, measurement. Based on the current data no conclusions can be drawn well-nigh the causal relationship betwixt sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. Given the focus of policymakers and wellness professionals on sport as a means to reach wider social and educational outcomes for young people, including in holland, further inquiry is needed to shed lite on the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth. Future research needs to focus specifically on the heterogeneity of the socially vulnerable youth group and the role of a motivational sport climate in achieving positive development outcomes.

Abbreviations

SDQ:

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire

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Funding

The study is funded by NWO, the Dutch Organisation for Scientific Research (project number: 328–98-007).

Availability of data and materials

The dataset supporting the conclusions of this commodity volition non be made available, in concurrence with the ethical guidelines that data collected within this project Youth, Intendance and Sport would be used solely for the research aims stipulated in the informed consent form.

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Affiliations

  1. Chair Group Health and Gild, Section of Social Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130, 6700, EW, Wageningen, holland

    Sabina Super, Niels Hermens, Kirsten Verkooijen & Maria Koelen

  2. School of Governance, Utrecht University, Bijlhouwerstraat 6, 3511, ZC, Utrecht, the Netherlands

    Niels Hermens

Contributions

SS, NH, KV and MK were involved in the pattern of the written report. NH and SS contributed to the data collection for this study. SS and KV conducted the statistical assay. SS wrote the first typhoon of the manuscript, afterward NH, KV and MK read and contributed to the revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sabina Super.

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Ethics approval and consent to participate

This written report has been approved past the Medical Ethical Commission of Wageningen University (protocol number: NL47988.081.14) and has been registered with the Dutch Trial Annals (NTR4621). For this written report no written consent forms were obtained from the subjects. Passive consent was obtained from the parents. Youth professionals that administered the questionnaires informed the youths orally near their rights. After obtaining oral informed consent, youths received the questionnaire. This process was installed because the socially vulnerable youths in this study may take difficulties in interpreting the formal language of the informed consent letter.

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Not applicative

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Super, S., Hermens, N., Verkooijen, One thousand. et al. Examining the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth. BMC Public Wellness eighteen, 1012 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5955-y

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Keywords

  • Positive youth development
  • Sense of coherence
  • Sport
  • Socially vulnerable youth
  • Self-regulation skills
  • Life prospects

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